RAM

Random-access memory (RAM) is a type of computer memory that allows stored data to be accessed directly in any random order. In contrast, other data storage media, such as hard disk drives and magnetic tape, can only access data in a predetermined order (sequential access).

RAM is used by the operating system and software applications as a computer's primary working memory. It temporarily stores the data and machine code that the CPU is actively using or expects to use soon. RAM is typically volatile memory, meaning that the information stored in it is lost when the device is powered off. This distinguishes it from non-volatile storage like SSDs or HDDs, which retain data without power.

Overview

The term "random-access" refers to the method of accessing data, where the time it takes to access any piece of data is nearly the same, regardless of its physical location in the memory chips. This allows the CPU to retrieve data from any memory address quickly, which is crucial for executing programs efficiently and multitasking.

RAM serves as a high-speed buffer between the CPU and slower forms of storage. When a program is launched or a file is opened, the relevant data and instructions are loaded from storage into RAM so the CPU can access them rapidly. When the program is closed or the file is saved, the modified data is written back to storage.

Types of RAM

While there are various technologies, the two main types of random-access semiconductor memory used in modern computers are DRAM and SRAM:

DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

This is the most common type of RAM used for a computer's main system memory. Each bit of data in DRAM is stored as a charge in a small capacitor paired with a transistor on an integrated circuit. Because capacitors naturally discharge, DRAM requires periodic refreshing (rewriting the data) to retain its contents. This dynamic nature makes it slower than SRAM, but its simpler structure allows for much higher density (more bits per chip) and lower cost. Modern system RAM is typically some form of Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), such as DDR4 or DDR5.

SRAM (Static RAM)

SRAM uses latches (typically involving six transistors) to store each bit. Once data is written, SRAM does not require refreshing as long as power is supplied, hence "static". This makes SRAM significantly faster than DRAM and generally consumes less power when idle. However, its more complex structure means SRAM is less dense (fewer bits per chip) and more expensive to manufacture than DRAM. SRAM is commonly used for high-speed cache memory within CPUs and other performance-critical applications where speed is paramount over capacity and cost.

History

Early forms of computer memory that offered some level of direct access, though not in the modern electronic sense, included magnetic core memory and drum memory in the 1950s and 1960s. These were bulky and slower than semiconductor RAM.

The invention of semiconductor random-access memory revolutionized computing. DRAM was invented by Robert Dennard at IBM in 1968. This invention, based on storing data in a capacitor, offered a much higher density and lower cost than previous memory technologies, paving the way for affordable main memory in computers. The first commercial DRAM chip, the Intel 1103, was released in 1970.

SRAM, using transistor latches, was also developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s. While existing alongside DRAM, its higher cost limited its use primarily to smaller, faster memory requirements like caches.

The evolution of DRAM has been characterized by continuous improvements in speed, density, and power efficiency, driven by industry standardization bodies. Key advancements include:

• FPM DRAM (Fast Page Mode): An early improvement allowing faster access within a page.
• EDO DRAM (Extended Data Out): Further improved speed by overlapping access cycles.
• SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM): Synchronized memory operations with the CPU clock, significantly increasing speed and efficiency. Introduced in the mid-1990s.
• DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM): Doubled the data transfer rate by transferring data on both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal. Subsequent generations (DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, DDR5) have continued to increase speed, improve power efficiency, and add features.

Throughout history, the trend has been towards increasing memory capacity (more gigabytes becoming standard), decreasing the cost per bit of storage, and increasing memory speed to keep pace with faster CPUs.

Characteristics

• Volatility: Most common types of RAM (DRAM, SRAM) are volatile; data is lost when power is removed.
• Speed (Access Time): RAM is very fast compared to storage devices like SSDs or HDDs, measured in nanoseconds. SRAM is faster than DRAM.
• Capacity: The amount of data the RAM module can hold, measured in megabytes (MB) or gigabytes (GB).
• Cost: RAM is more expensive per gigabyte than hard disk drives, but much cheaper than CPU cache (SRAM).

How it Impacts Performance

RAM is a critical factor in overall computer system performance.

• Insufficient RAM: If a system does not have enough RAM to hold all the data and instructions needed by currently running programs, the operating system must temporarily move data between RAM and slower storage (a process called "swapping" or using "virtual memory"). This drastically slows down performance.
• RAM Speed: Even with sufficient capacity, slow RAM can bottleneck a fast CPU, as the CPU has to wait for data to be fetched from memory. Faster RAM allows the CPU to access data more quickly, improving overall system responsiveness, especially in demanding applications or multitasking scenarios.
• Quantity vs. Speed: The optimal balance depends on the workload. Workloads that require large datasets or many simultaneous programs benefit more from higher capacity, while workloads that require rapid access to smaller amounts of data benefit more from higher speed.

See also

• Computer memory
• Volatile memory
• Non-volatile memory
• Memory hierarchy
• CPU cache
• ROM